Publications

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    Abstract: Using account-level data on millions of U.S. middle-class investors over 2006 to 2018, we characterize the share of investable wealth that they hold in the stock market over their working lives. Relative to the 1990s, this share has both risen by 10% and become age-dependent. The Pension Protection Act (PPA)—which allowed target date funds (TDFs) to be default options in retirement plans—played an important role: younger (older) workers starting at a firm after TDFs became the default option post-PPA invested more (less) in stocks, in line with the TDF glidepath. In contrast, contribution rates changed little following the PPA.

Working Papers

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    Abstract: How do workers value retirement benefits relative to wages and what impact do these benefits have on firm hiring? I find that dollars paid in employer contributions to 401(k) plans have nearly double the effect on a firm's recruiting success than dollars paid in wages. However, there is significant heterogeneity in the effect of employer contributions across the income and age distribution: the effect is driven primarily by high-income and higher-age occupations. Since firms endogenously select their compensation bundles to attract their desired workers, I use two novel instruments to identify the results: 1) IRS mandated non-discrimination testing of retirement plans and 2) corporate policies of national wage setting. I then develop and estimate an on-the-job search model which shows that the average worker requires only a 0.25 percentage point increase in employer contribution dollars to offset a 1% decrease in wages. Moreover, moving from a job with no retirement plan to a job with a plan increases valuations by the same magnitude as 2% increase in wages. Again, retirement valuations are positively correlated with salary. I confirm the channel in an online survey setting: participants are willing to give up total pay to get a higher employer match to get a non-matching employer-sponsored 401(k). The results imply that 80% of firms in the estimation sample could improve their probability of a job offer being accepted by increasing 401(k) contributions.

Works in Progress